The promises—and perils—of Indian aquaculture

The Plate and the Planet is a monthly column by Dr. Madhura Rao, a food systems researcher and science communicator, exploring the connection between the food on our plates and the future of our planet.

Can a rapidly expanding industry feed a nation without compromising its ecosystems or its people’s health? Aquaculture—which involves farming fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants—has become central to this question, especially in countries like India where fish is both a dietary staple and an important source of livelihood. Unlike capture fisheries, which rely on harvesting wild fish, aquaculture is a controlled process that allows for increased production and a steady supply of seafood.

Although aquaculture has existed for centuries, it is now gaining greater attention and benefiting from technological advancements due to declining wild fish stocks, growing concerns over food security, and the need for a more sustainable way to meet rising seafood demand. Over the last few decades, it has emerged as one of the fastest-growing sectors of the food industry, playing a key role in global food and nutritional security. For countries like India, where fish is a staple for millions, aquaculture holds immense economic, dietary, and employment potential.

Where does India stand?

India is the world's second largest aquaculture producer, contributing approximately 8% to global fish production. The country’s total aquaculture production reached 10.2 million tonnes in 2022, up from 8.6 million tonnes in 2020. This growth is largely driven by freshwater aquaculture, which refers to the farming of fish in inland water bodies such as ponds, lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. The expansion of freshwater aquaculture was driven by various technological and fish breeding innovations, including induced breeding using hormonal or environmental triggers. Alongside this, polyculture and composite culture practices—raising a mix of native and exotic carp species together—have enabled more efficient use of resources and higher yields. In India, carp (rohu, catla, mrigal), catfish, freshwater shrimp, and tilapia are the most popular aquaculture species and the states of Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal are the leading producers.

India is the world's second largest aquaculture producer, contributing approximately 8% to global fish production.

Although freshwater aquaculture dominates, other types of aquaculture also exist in India. Brackish water aquaculture, which takes place in coastal estuaries and lagoons with a mix of freshwater and seawater, is widely practised in the Sundarbans for shrimp farming. Marine aquaculture, or mariculture, which involves farming species directly in the sea, is still limited but growing, with coastal states currently exploring the potential for commercial mussel, oyster, and seaweed farming. Additionally, integrated aquaculture, which combines fish farming with agriculture or livestock rearing, is practiced in some regions to improve efficiency and resource use.

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Amplifying rural development 

With aquaculture accounting for nearly 75% of India’s total seafood production, its expansion has created new economic opportunities in states with strong freshwater fisheries. One of the key contributions of aquaculture is income diversification, particularly for smallholder farmers and landless workers. Unlike seasonal agricultural crops, fish farming can provide year-round earnings, making it an attractive livelihood option, particularly when integrated with existing farming systems​. 

Another area where aquaculture has shown potential is women’s participation in rural economies. In states such as Odisha, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu, government-supported aquaculture projects have encouraged women’s self-help groups to engage in community-managed fish farming, improving household nutrition, and financial independence. However, social and cultural barriers continue to restrict women’s full participation in the sector, particularly when it comes to decision-making in commercial fish farming operations.

Additionally, high initial costs, fluctuating market prices, and frequent disease outbreaks can reduce market access and profitability for small-scale producers, particularly in regions where access to organised fish markets is limited. Infrastructure gaps also pose a major challenge to aquaculture’s rural development potential. However, despite these challenges, the sector has significant potential for growth. With targeted interventions such as capacity-building programmes, improved access to credit, and infrastructure development, aquaculture can continue to strengthen livelihoods, generate employment, and contribute to sustainable rural development. 

Also see: Small catch: Deep in muddy water, traditional fisherfolk nimbly catch clams and karimeen with their bare hands

The question of safety regulations

Unlike wild-caught fish, which are exposed to naturally fluctuating water conditions and diverse ecosystems, farmed fish are raised in controlled environments where stocking densities, water quality, and feed composition directly impact their health and thereby, their safety as food. In some cases, contaminants such as heavy metals, antibiotic residues, microplastics, and pathogens can accumulate in farmed fish due to polluted water sources, overuse of veterinary drugs, or insufficient disease prevention and hygiene practices. 

However, as aquaculture has expanded to meet growing global seafood demand, food safety standards and regulations have also evolved. The increasing commercialisation of farmed seafood, along with the influence of large retailers and supermarket chains, has played a major role in strengthening food safety requirements across national and international markets. Many countries have adopted stricter hygiene protocols, improved regulatory frameworks, and established training programmes for fish farmers to ensure compliance with evolving standards. In the Indian context, however, these changes have largely benefitted aquaculture produce that is exported.

Seafood intended for export is subject to stricter regulation, meeting international food safety standards such as those set by importers like the European Union and the United States. Processing units approved for export must comply with strict hazard analysis protocols, residue monitoring plans, and microbiological testing, ensuring that farmed shrimp and fish exported from India are free from contaminants. In contrast, regulations are not as strictly enforced for fish sold in domestic markets, with studies noting weaker cold storage infrastructure, a higher likelihood of microbial contamination, and more frequent detection of antibiotic residues​.

Since high-value aquaculture products, particularly shrimp, are prioritised for export, lower-quality fish tends to remain in the domestic supply chain, raising concerns about food safety for domestic consumers.

Also read: The perilous future of Kashmir’s once-abundant trout

Environmental impacts

The rapid expansion of aquaculture in India has raised concerns about its environmental footprint, particularly regarding water pollution, habitat degradation, and resource use. The conversion of ecologically sensitive areas, such as mangroves and agricultural land, into aquaculture ponds has been a significant issue. While the expansion of shrimp and fish farming has contributed to economic growth, it has also resulted in the loss of wetlands and coastal vegetation, which are critical for biodiversity and climate resilience.

Water pollution is another concern. The discharge of untreated wastewater from fish and shrimp farms, containing high levels of nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter, has led to eutrophication of water bodies – a process where excessive nutrient buildup depletes oxygen levels, leading to uncontrolled algae growth and disruptions in aquatic ecosystems. In high production states like Andhra Pradesh, effluents from shrimp ponds have increased salinity in adjacent agricultural lands, reducing soil fertility and limiting crop productivity.

While the expansion of shrimp and fish farming has contributed to economic growth, it has also resulted in the loss of wetlands and coastal vegetation, which are critical for biodiversity and climate resilience.

Despite these challenges, aquaculture remains one of the most resource-efficient ways to meet the world’s growing protein needs. Studies show that compared to land-based livestock farming, aquaculture requires significantly less feed and land while producing lower greenhouse gas emissions. The expansion of farming low-impact species such as bivalves and seaweed offers additional environmental benefits, as these organisms can be farmed without external feed inputs and even help improve water quality. 

Meanwhile, innovations such as Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) and Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) provide more sustainable alternatives to traditional fish farming. IMTA mimics natural ecosystems by cultivating multiple species such as fish, shellfish, and seaweed in the same environment. In such a system, waste from one species becomes nutrients for another, reducing pollution and improving resource efficiency. RAS, on the other hand, uses advanced filtration and water treatment technologies to recycle and purify water within closed systems, minimising waste discharge and land use. 

The way forward

The future of Indian aquaculture depends on sustainable intensification, stronger governance, and improved infrastructure. On the policy front, the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY), launched in 2020  is laying the groundwork for a structured and modernised approach to fisheries management. However, stricter enforcement of environmental regulations, improved disease surveillance, substantial investment in cold storage infrastructure, and better coordination between central and state agencies are needed to ensure long-term sustainability. State-specific management plans, particularly for brackish water aquaculture and reservoir fisheries, could help optimise production while mitigating habitat degradation. 

With targeted improvements in technology, safety regulations for the domestic market, and farmer support, aquaculture can become a stable and sustainable food production system that provides economic security to rural communities while reducing pressure on wild fish stocks and live-stock farming. A more scientifically informed and socially sensitive approach will be essential to ensuring its role in India’s food security and environmental sustainability in the years to come.

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